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Philosophical underpinnings of civil society

Civil society incorporates a series of concepts and principles. The idea of civil society means different things to different people but there are overarching principles relevant, indeed central to its definition. For example, it is generally accepted that the idea of a civil society refers to organised groupings of human populations, including any organised institutions/clubs. The concept has been discussed historically by philosophers, and the idea of a civil society has been linked to the concept of the ideal state as well as to human attributes, considered as virtuous. It also has a unique significance within the domain of politics and political ideology.

Socrates, for example discussed the idea of civil society as a representation of a good society that was connected to the state and the ideal society. Plato, like Socrates retained the links between a civil society and the ideal society. He argued that the concept of a civil society was principally based upon the idea of “goodness” and justice. Plato's conception of a civil society was therefore linked with human attributes that were to be held up as virtuous, and he argued that this created the link between “civility” and society.

Development and refinement of civil society

The concept of civil society was further developed as a result of the formulation of the first state and the state system. This evolution of the modern state has been traced back to the end of the Thirty Years' War and the Treaty of Westphalia, in the late 17th century. The bridge between this period, where monarchies governed states and the Enlightenment Period (the 18th century) may be explained by reference to the concept of civil society. Writers in the Enlightenment used their more sophisticated conception of civil society to criticise the power of monarchies, which was the subject of many political, and military challenges during this time. The basic premise of a civil society, which critics of the power of monarchies (like Thomas Hobbes and John Locke) put forward in the Enlightenment period, was that legitimacy of those in political authority must be a fundamental part of a civil society. Political oppression, and the oppression of liberal and democratic principles stifled the functioning of a civil society. Again, the proponents of these views on civil society argued (in the same way that Socrates and Plato had years previously) - that the idea of a civil society was linked to an ethical organisation of society. This was central to the idea of the social contract (known as The Social Contract Theory) put forward by Thomas Hobbes.

Civil society within this theory was comprised of people who obey the law, and at the same time wish to be protected by it. People, therefore, theoretically contracted to obey the laws of a democratically elected state, and people who disobeyed the law were regarded as deviants who, according to the theory, were liable to be punished by the state in a civil society. The development of the conception of the state has changed how civil society may be seen as constructed. It was during this period of Enlightenment that the foundations for many competing views of civil society were laid down. Hegel argued that the modern conception of civil society must in some way incorporate the market, and the economy. Hegel, heavily influenced by capitalism argued that civil society must be tied to the behaviour of the individual, and the individual must accept responsibility for their choices, even if this leads to inequalities, or poverty. This view may be seen as being linked to the concept of classical liberal ideology, and the modern form of this - Republicanism and also Conservatism. For these schools of thought, the role of a civil society is to exist while promoting economic freedom, and a more severe interpretation of capitalism. The converse view, espoused by those aligned to more rights-based ideologies such as social democracies, consider the concept of a civil society as regulating the behaviour of individuals, thus curbing their liberty and regulating the effects of their choices. This may be seen as manifested in higher taxation and more extensive welfare provision at policy level.

Modern conceptions of civil society

The idea of civil society has further been developed within contemporary conceptions and theories of politics and political ideology. Modern theorists connect the concept of civil society to the collective action of individuals, as it may be seen to reflect their shared interests, views, values or moral code. These aggregations of alignment may be economic, political, social, religious or mixtures of these or related concepts. The theory of globalisation has also fundamentally impacted the concept of civil society and how it may be defined and evaluated. Traditionally, the concept of civil society has been tied to physical location. The reasons for this are obvious - organisation of shared views, or values may only be developed with some difficulty where there are barriers to communication, and refinement (and reinforcement) of the shared value. This led to groupings of civil society organising within their common nation states, or at least within a common, accessible vicinity. The barriers to this being the norm have been taken down by the emergence of a globalised world, with advancements in technological communications being key to the development. Civil society may no longer to seen as normally being organised within, or close to particular physical locations. Specifically, the internet has revolutionised the meaning of civil society within many senses. It has produced effects upon the economy, and made communication faster, more reliable and different in substance. The communications may be seen as both social and economic. Civil society that was the norm before globalisation is therefore facilitated, but also developed by these progressions. It is important to note that the internet has not led to the replacement of the norm of civil society, rather it has led to the development of new norms regarding civil society that co-exist with the norms that preceded the era of a globalised world. Segments of civil society therefore remain as unaffected by these developments, but this may not be seen as a means to deny the extent of the impact that globalisation has had upon the modern construction, and meaning of civil society.

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